Cost-benefit analysis of pharmacist interventions over 36 months in a university hospital.

OBJECTIVE: To perform a cost-benefits analysis of a clinical pharmacy (CP) service implemented in a Neurology ward of a tertiary teaching hospital. METHODS: This is a cost-benefit analysis of a single arm, prospective cohort study performed at the adult Neurology Unit over 36 months, which has evaluated the results of a CP service from a hospital and Public Health System (PHS) perspective. The interventions were classified into 14 categories and the costs identified as direct medical costs. The results were analyzed by the total and marginal cost, the benefit-cost ratio (BCR) and the net benefit (NB). RESULTS: The total 334 patients were followed-up and the highest occurrence in 506 interventions was drug introduction (29.0%). The marginal cost for the hospital and avoided cost for PHS was US$182±32 and US$25,536±4,923 per year; and US$0.55 and US$76.4 per patient/year. The BCR and NB were 0.0, -US$26,105 (95%CI -31,850 - -10,610), -US$27,112 (95%CI -33,160-11,720) for the hospital and; 3.0 (95%CI 1.97-4.94), US$51,048 (95%CI 27,645-75,716) and, 4.6 (95%CI 2.24-10.05), US$91,496 (95%CI 34,700-168,050; p < 0.001) for the PHS, both considering adhered and total interventions, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The CP service was not directly cost-benefit at the hospital perspective, but it presented savings for forecast cost related to the occurrence of preventable morbidities, measuring a good cost-benefit for the PHS.

Cost-benefit analysis of pharmacist interventions over 36 months in a university hospital

ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE: To perform a cost-benefits analysis of a clinical pharmacy (CP) service implemented in a Neurology ward of a tertiary teaching hospital. METHODS: This is a cost-benefit analysis of a single arm, prospective cohort study performed at the adult Neurology Unit over 36 months, which has evaluated the results of a CP service from a hospital and Public Health System (PHS) perspective. The interventions were classified into 14 categories and the costs identified as direct medical costs. The results were analyzed by the total and marginal cost, the benefit-cost ratio (BCR) and the net benefit (NB). RESULTS: The total 334 patients were followed-up and the highest occurrence in 506 interventions was drug introduction (29.0%). The marginal cost for the hospital and avoided cost for PHS was US$182±32 and US$25,536±4,923 per year; and US$0.55 and US$76.4 per patient/year. The BCR and NB were 0.0, -US$26,105 (95%CI −31,850 − -10,610), -US$27,112 (95%CI −33,160-11,720) for the hospital and; 3.0 (95%CI 1.97-4.94), US$51,048 (95%CI 27,645-75,716) and, 4.6 (95%CI 2.24-10.05), US$91,496 (95%CI 34,700-168,050; p < 0.001) for the PHS, both considering adhered and total interventions, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The CP service was not directly cost-benefit at the hospital perspective, but it presented savings for forecast cost related to the occurrence of preventable morbidities, measuring a good cost-benefit for the PHS.

Economic Burden of Cardiovascular Disease in Type 2 Diabetes: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) constitute major comorbidities in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), contributing substantially to treatment costs for T2DM. An updated overview of the economic burden of CVD in T2DM has not been presented to date. OBJECTIVE: To systematically review published articles describing the costs associated with treating CVD in people with T2DM. METHODS: Two reviewers searched MEDLINE, Embase, and abstracts from scientific meetings to identify original research published between 2007 and 2017, with no restrictions on language. Studies reporting direct costs at either a macro level (e.g., burden of illness for a country) or a micro level (e.g., cost incurred by one patient) were included. Extracted costs were inflated to 2016 values using local consumer price indexes, converted into US dollars, and presented as cost per patient per year. RESULTS: Of 81 identified articles, 24 were accepted for analysis, of which 14 were full articles and 10 abstracts. Cardiovascular comorbidities in patients with T2DM incurred a significant burden at both the population and patient levels. From a population level, CVD costs contributed between 20% and 49% of the total direct costs of treating T2DM. The median annual costs per patient for CVD, coronary artery disease, heart failure, and stroke were, respectively, 112%, 107%, 59%, and 322% higher compared with those for T2DM patients without CVD. On average, treating patients with CVD and T2DM resulted in a cost increase ranging from $3418 to $9705 compared with treating patients with T2DM alone. CONCLUSIONS: Globally, CVD has a substantial impact on direct medical costs of T2DM at both the patient and population levels.

Prevalence of cardiovascular disease in type 2 diabetes: a systematic literature review of scientific evidence from across the world in 2007-2017.

BACKGROUND: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a common comorbidity in type 2 diabetes (T2DM). CVD's prevalence has been growing over time. PURPOSE: To estimate the current prevalence of CVD among adults with T2DM by reviewing literature published within the last 10 years (2007-March 2017). METHODS: We searched Medline, Embase, and proceedings of major scientific meetings for original research documenting the prevalence of CVD in T2DM. CVD included stroke, myocardial infarction, angina pectoris, heart failure, ischemic heart disease, cardiovascular disease, coronary heart disease, atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular death. No restrictions were placed on country of origin or publication language. Two reviewers independently searched for articles and extracted data, adjudicating results through consensus. Data were summarized descriptively. Risk of bias was examined by applying the STROBE checklist. RESULTS: We analyzed data from 57 articles with 4,549,481 persons having T2DM. Europe produced the most articles (46%), followed by the Western Pacific/China (21%), and North America (13%). Overall in 4,549,481 persons with T2DM, 52.0% were male, 47.0% were obese, aged 63.6 ± 6.9 years old, with T2DM duration of 10.4 ± 3.7 years. CVD affected 32.2% overall (53 studies, N = 4,289,140); 29.1% had atherosclerosis (4 studies, N = 1153), 21.2% had coronary heart disease (42 articles, N = 3,833,200), 14.9% heart failure (14 studies, N = 601,154), 14.6% angina (4 studies, N = 354,743), 10.0% myocardial infarction (13 studies, N = 3,518,833) and 7.6% stroke (39 studies, N = 3,901,505). CVD was the cause of death in 9.9% of T2DM patients (representing 50.3% of all deaths). Risk of bias was low; 80 ± 12% of STROBE checklist items were adequately addressed. CONCLUSIONS: Globally, overall CVD affects approximately 32.2% of all persons with T2DM. CVD is a major cause of mortality among people with T2DM, accounting for approximately half of all deaths over the study period. Coronary artery disease and stroke were the major contributors.

Cost-effectiveness of 3-month paliperidone therapy for chronic schizophrenia in the Netherlands.

BACKGROUND: A new depot formulation of paliperidone has been developed that provides effective treatment for schizophrenia for 3 months (PP3M). It has been tested in phase-3 trials, but no data on its cost-effectiveness have been published. PURPOSE: To determine the cost-effectiveness of PP3M compared with once-monthly paliperidone (PP1M), haloperidol long-acting therapy (HAL-LAT), risperidone microspheres (RIS-LAT), and oral olanzapine (oral-OLZ) for treating chronic schizophrenia in The Netherlands. METHODS: A previous 1-year decision tree was adapted, based on local inputs supplemented with data from published literature. The primary analysis used DRG costs in 2016 euros from the insurer perspective, as derived from official lists. A micro-costing analysis was also conducted. For the costing scenario, official list prices were used. Clinical outcomes included relapses (treated as outpatients, requiring hospitalization, total), and quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs). Rates and utility scores were derived from the literature. Economic outcomes were the incremental cost/QALY-gained or relapse-avoided. Model robustness was examined in scenario, 1-way, and probability sensitivity analyses. RESULTS: The expected cost was lowest with PP3M (8,781€), followed by PP1M (10,325€), HAL-LAT (11,278€), RIS-LAT (11,307€), and oral-OLZ (13,556€). PP3M had the fewest total relapses/patient (0.36, 0.94, 1.39, 1.21, and 1.70, respectively), hospitalizations (0.11, 0.46, 0.40, 0.56, and 0.57, respectively), emergency room visits (0.25, 0.48. 0.99, 0.65, and 1.14, respectively) and the most QALYs (0.847, 0.735, 0.709, 0.719, and 0.656, respectively). In both cost-effectiveness and cost-utility analyses, PP3M dominated all other drugs. Sensitivity analyses confirmed base case findings. In the costing analysis, total costs were, on average, 31.9% higher than DRGs. CONCLUSIONS: PP3M dominated all commonly used drugs. It is cost-effective for treating chronic schizophrenia in the Netherlands. Results were robust over a wide range of sensitivity analyses. For patients requiring a depot medication, such as those with adherence problems, PP3M appears to be a good alternative anti-psychotic treatment.

Cost-effectiveness of 3-month paliperidone treatment for chronic schizophrenia in Spain.

BACKGROUND: A 3-month long treatment of paliperidone palmitate (PP3M) has been introduced as an option for treating schizophrenia. Its cost-effectiveness in Spain has not been established. AIMS: To compare the costs and effects of PP3M compared with once-monthly paliperidone (PP1M) from the payer perspective in Spain. METHODS: This study used the recently published trial by Savitz et al. as a core model over 1 year. Additional data were derived from the literature. Costs in 2016 Euros were obtained from official lists and utilities from Osborne et al. The authors conducted both cost-utility and cost-effectiveness analyses. For the former, the incremental cost per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) gained was calculated. For the latter, the outcomes were relapses and hospitalizations avoided. To assure the robustness of the analyses, a series of 1-way and probability sensitivity analyses were conducted. RESULTS: The expected cost was lower with PP3M (4,780€) compared with PP1M (5,244€). PP3M had the fewest relapses (0.080 vs 0.161), hospitalizations (0.034 v.s 0.065), and emergency room visits (0.045 v.s 0.096) and the most QALYs (0.677 v.s 0.625). In both cost-effectiveness and cost-utility analyses, PP3M dominated PP1M. Sensitivity analyses confirmed base case findings. For the primary analysis (cost-utility), PP3M dominated PP1M in 46.9% of 10,000 simulations and was cost-effective at a threshold of 30,000€/QALY gained. CONCLUSIONS: PP3M dominated PP1M in all analyses and was, therefore, cost-effective for treating chronic relapsing schizophrenia in Spain. For patients who require long-acting therapy, PP3M appears to be a good alternative anti-psychotic treatment.

Dose escalation of biologics in Crohn's disease: critical review of observational studies.

BACKGROUND: Biologics used to treat Crohn's disease (CD) may lose their effect over time, requiring dose escalation. Little information is available on this topic. AIM: To summarize rates of dose escalation, duration, de-escalation in observational studies of CD in adults treated with adalimumab, infliximab, and vedolizumab in Europe. METHODS: Two independent investigators searched Medline and Embase for observational studies published in 1998-2015 and proceedings from four major scientific meetings. Rates were summarized descriptively. RESULTS: In total, 58 articles from 12 European countries were analyzed (49 full articles, nine abstracts), providing 65 reports with 7,850 patients; 35 reported on 3,830 patients with adalimumab (ADA), and 30 on 4,020 patients with infliximab (IFX). Overall, 29.9% ± 3.5% of patients required dose escalation; 32.8% ± 6.2% with ADA and 25.2% ± 2.4% with IFX (p = .35 between drugs). Rates increased according to line of treatment: 19% for first line, 37% second, and 41% third. The median time to loss of response was 12 months, and the weighted average was 15.1 ± 5.9 months. Median time to escalation was 6.7 months; 6.7 months for ADA and 7.5 for IFX (p = .86). Short-term response rates to escalation were 63% for ADA and 45% for IFX (p = .08). There were no papers available for vedolizumab. CONCLUSIONS: A substantial proportion of patients receiving ADA or IFX for Crohn's disease require dose escalation after a short period of time.

Systematic literature review of the health economic implications of early detection by screening populations at risk for type 2 diabetes.

BACKGROUND: Undetected/uncontrolled diabetes is associated with substantial morbidity and mortality and consequent costs. Early detection through screening identifies patients at risk, allowing for earlier treatment initiation. OBJECTIVES: To determine the economic impact of screening for type 2 diabetes (T2DM). DATA SOURCES: We systematically reviewed health economic analyses of screening programs for T2DM/pre-diabetes. STUDY ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: Published between 2000 and 2015 in any language. Articles must have reported costs of screening, test/patient outcomes and cost-effectiveness. PARTICIPANTS AND INTERVENTIONS: Any type of screening (universal, targeted, opportunistic) was accepted. METHODS: Data were extracted from Scopus/Medline/Embase, then tabulated. RESULTS: There were 137 studies identified, 108 rejected; 29 were analyzed. Screening types included 18 universal, 8 targeted and 8 opportunistic. One study screened for pre-diabetes, 16 for T2DM and 12 examined both. Fourteen (48%) reported costs of screening only, 9 (31%) costs of screening combined with interventions and 6 (21%) presented all costs separately. Screening was compared to no screening in 13 studies (45%); screening was cost-effective in 8 (62%), not cost-effective in 4 (31%) and neither in 1 (8%). When comparing different screening methods, 6 found targeted screening was cost-effective compared with universal screening (none found the opposite), 2 found opportunistic superior to universal. Sensitivity analyses generally confirmed primary findings. Cost drivers included prevalence of T2DM/pre-diabetes, type of blood test used and uptake of testing. For optimal cost-effectiveness, screening for both T2DM and pre-diabetes should be initiated around age 45-50, with repeated testing every 5 years. CONCLUSIONS/IMPLICATIONS: Targeted screening appears to be cost-effective compared to universal screening.

Comparative effectiveness of interferons in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: a meta-analysis of real-world studies.

BACKGROUND: Differences between interferons have been evaluated for over 20 years. While randomized controlled trial (RCT) data is mainly used for assessments and strong data for causal inferences, it does not necessarily reflect everyday practice. Real-world data may provide additional information. PURPOSE: To assess the results, quality, and representativeness of observational studies directly comparing interferons (IFNs) in RRMS. METHODS: Medline and Embase were searched for observational studies comparing IFN-beta-1a 30 mcg IM (Avonex 1 ), IFN-beta-1a 44 mcg SC (Rebif 2 ) and/or IFN-beta-1b 250 mcg SC (Betaseron 3 ). Outcomes included annualized relapse rate (ARR), proportions relapse free, confirmed progression free, treatment persistence, and neutralizing antibodies rates (NABs) measured up to 5 years of treatment. Data was combined using random effects meta-analyses. Categorical values were analyzed using chi-squared and Mann-Whitney tests. RESULTS: Thirty-six studies examining 32,026 patients (72.5% females, age = 39.2 ± 3.7 years, disease duration = 5.6 ± 2.0 years) were identified. Thirty-three studies investigated IFN-beta-1a IM (N = 11,925), 30 IFN-beta-1a SC (N = 10,684) and 34 IFN-beta-1b SC (N = 9417). Baseline ARRs were similar (1.37 ± 0.35, 1.51 ± 0.27 and 1.55 ± 0.23, respectively; P = .101) as were EDSS scores (2.24 ± 0.39, 2.33 ± 0.30, 2.55 ± 0.38; P = .070) and >75% were naïve to IFNs. On treatment, ARRs were comparable (IFN-beta-1a IM 0.52 ± 0.27, IFN-beta-1a SC 0.51 ± 0.24, IFN-beta-1b SC 0.55 ± 0.23; P = .595). Proportions of relapse-free patients were similar between drugs (P > .05 for all data points), except that IFN-beta-1a SC was superior to IFN-beta-1b SC in years 3-5 (all P ≤ .001). After 1 year, EDSS scores were comparable; after 2 years, IFN-beta-1a IM and IFN-beta-1a SC incurred less disease progression than IFN-beta-1b SC (P < .02). Confirmed progression-free rates and persistence were similar over 5 years. Fewer patients developed NABs with IFN-beta-1a IM (4.7 ± 1.5%) versus IFN-beta-1a SC (21.4 ± 2.8%) (P < 0.001) or IFN-beta-1b SC (32.2% ± 3.3%) (P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: In this comprehensive meta-analysis of real-world studies in RRMS, IFN-beta-1a IM, IFN-beta-1a SC and IFN-beta-1b SC had similar clinical profiles. When selecting an IFN, practitioners should consider observational data in their decision making process.

Economic analysis of paliperidone long-acting injectable for chronic schizophrenia in Portugal.

OBJECTIVE: Patients with chronic schizophrenia suffer a huge burden, as do their families/caregivers. Treating schizophrenia is costly for health systems. The European Medicines Agency has approved paliperidone palmitate (PP-LAI; Xeplion), an atypical antipsychotic depot; however, its pharmacoeconomic profile in Portugal is unknown. A cost-effectiveness analysis was conducted from the viewpoint of the Portuguese National Health Service. METHODS: PP-LAI was compared with long acting injectables risperidone (RIS-LAI) and haloperidol (HAL-LAI) and oral drugs (olanzapine; oral-OLZ) adapting a 1-year decision tree to Portugal, guided by local experts. Clinical information and costs were obtained from literature sources and published lists. Outcomes included relapses (both requiring and not requiring hospitalization) and quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs). Costs were expressed in 2014 euros. Economic outcomes were incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs); including cost-utility (outcome = QALYs) and cost-effectiveness analyses (outcomes = relapse/hospitalization/emergency room (ER) visit avoided). RESULTS: The base-case cost of oral-OLZ was 4447€ (20% drugs/20% medical/60% hospital); HAL-LAI cost 4474€ (13% drugs/13% medical/74% hospital); PP-LAI cost 5326€ (49% drugs/12% medical/39% hospital); RIS-LAI cost 6223€ (44% drugs/12% medical/44% hospital). Respective QALYs/hospitalizations/ER visits were oral-OLZ: 0.761/0.615/0.242; HAL-LAI: 0.758/0.623/0.250; PP-LAI: 0.823/0.288/0.122; RIS-LAI: 0.799/0.394/0.168. HAL-LAI was dominated by oral-OLZ and RIS-LAI by PP-LAI for all outcomes. The ICER of PP-LAI over oral-OLZ was 14,247€/QALY, well below NICE/Portuguese thresholds (≈24,800€/30,000€/QALY). ICERs were 1973€/relapse avoided and 2697€/hospitalization avoided. Analyses were robust against most variations in input values, as PP-LAI was cost-effective over oral-OLZ in >99% of 10,000 simulations. CONCLUSION: In Portugal, PP-LAI dominated HAL-LAI and RIS-LAI and was cost-effective over oral-OLZ with respect to QALYs gained, relapses avoided, and hospitalizations avoided.

Pharmacoeconomics of long-acting atypical antipsychotics for acutely relapsed chronic schizophrenia in Finland.

BACKGROUND: Atypical long-acting injectable (LAI) antipsychotics are increasingly available for treating chronic schizophrenia in patients chronically non-adherent to prescribed regimens. Few economic studies have compared these products. PURPOSE: To determine the cost-effectiveness of aripiprazole (ARI-LAI), paliperidone (PP-LAI), olanzapine (OLZ-LAI), and risperidone (RIS-LAI) in patients with chronic schizophrenia in Finland. METHODS: A 1-year decision tree model was adapted with guidance from an expert panel. Patients started hospitalized in relapse; those who responded continued treatment, others were switched to secondary drugs, then clozapine in the event of 2nd line failure. Rates of adherence, stable disease, relapse, and hospitalization were taken from pivotal trials, and utilities from published research. Included were direct costs paid by the Finnish Ministry of Health, in 2015 euros. Outcomes included quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs), hospitalization rates, and rates of relapse not requiring hospitalization. Model robustness was assessed using a series of 1-way and multivariate sensitivity analyses. RESULTS: Expected costs were lowest for PP-LAI at 41,148€, followed by 41,543€ for ARI-LAI, 42,067€ for RIS-LAI and 45,406€ for OLZ-LAI. Respective QALYs were 0.683, 0.671, 0.666, and 0.672. Re-hospitalization rates and non-admitted relapses were 23.6% and 3.9% for PP-LAI, 28.5% and 4.1% for ARI-LAI, 28.8% and 5.0% for RIS-LAI, 28.3% and 5.2% for OLZ-LAI. PP-LAI treatment was associated with the most days with stable disease (132.0), followed by OLZ-LAI (125.5), ARI-LAI (122.6), and RIS-LAI (114.4). Sensitive inputs between PP-LAI and ARI-LAI included rates of adherence, dropouts, and relapses plus drug prices; dropout and relapse rates for RIS-LAI; OLZ-LAI results were insensitive. In probability sensitivity analyses, PP-LAI dominated ARI-LAI in 75.8% of the 10,000 iterations, RIS-LAI in 83.1% and OLZ-LAI in 95.7%. CONCLUSIONS: PP-LAI dominated the other atypicals. It appears to be the preferred option for treating chronic relapsing schizophrenia.

Systematic review of models used in economic analyses in moderate-to-severe asthma and COPD.

BACKGROUND: Respiratory diseases exert a substantial burden on society, with newer drugs increasingly adding to the burden. Economic models are often used, but seldom reviewed. PURPOSE: To summarize economic models used in economic analyses of drugs treating moderate-to-severe/very severe asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). METHODS: This study searched Medline and Embase from inception to the end of February 2015 for cost-effectiveness/utility analyses that examined at least one drug against placebo, another drug, or other standard therapy in asthma or COPD. Two reviewers independently searched and extracted data with differences adjudicated via consensus discussion. Data extracted included model used and its qualities, validation methods, treatments compared, disease severity, analytic perspective, time horizon, data collection (pro- or retrospective), input rates and sources, costs and sources, planned sensitivity analyses, criteria for cost-effectiveness, reported outcomes, and sponsor. RESULTS: This study analyzed 53 articles; 14 (25%) on asthma and 39 (75%) COPD. Markov models were commonly used for both asthma and COPD-related economic evaluations. Relatively few studies validated their model. For asthma-related studies, 10 examined inhaled corticosteroids and nine studied omalizumab. Placebo or standard therapy was the comparison in 11 studies and active drugs in the remainder. CONCLUSIONS: Few studies include validation of their models. Furthermore, controversy concerning some results was uncovered in this study, which needs to be avoided in the future.

Patient preferences in severe COPD and asthma: a comprehensive literature review.

BACKGROUND: Management of chronic incurable diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma is difficult. Incorporation of patient preferences is widely encouraged. PURPOSE: To summarize original research articles determining patient preference in moderate-to-severe disease. METHODS: Acceptable articles consisted of original research determining preferences for any aspect of care in patients with COPD/asthma. The target population included those with severe disease; however, articles were accepted if they separated outcomes by severity or if the majority had at least moderate-to-severe disease. We also accepted simulation research based on scenarios describing situations involving moderate-to-severe disease that elicited preferences. Two reviewers searched Medline and Embase for articles published from the date of inception of the databases until the end of November 2014, with differences resolved through consensus discussion. Data were tabulated and analyzed descriptively. RESULTS: About 478 articles identified, 448 were rejected and 30 analyzed. There were 25 on COPD and five on asthma. Themes identified as most important in COPD were symptom relief (dyspnea/breathlessness), a positive patient-physician relationship, quality-of-life impairments, and information availability. Patients strongly preferred sponsors' inhalers. At end-of-life, 69% preferred receiving CPR, 70% wanted noninvasive, and 58% invasive mechanical intervention. While patients with asthma preferred treatments that increased symptom-free days, they were willing to trade days without symptoms for a reduction in adverse events and greater convenience. Asthma patients were willing to pay for waking up once and not needing their inhaler over waking up once overnight and needing their inhaler. CONCLUSION: Few studies have examined patient preference in these diseases. More research is needed to fill in knowledge gaps.

Utilities for asthma and COPD according to category of severity: a comprehensive literature review.

BACKGROUND: Asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are incurable diseases that impact quality-of-life. OBJECTIVE: To summarize original research articles that measured or utilized preference-based utilities or disutilities according to disease severity. METHODS: Medline and Embase were searched from inception until the end of November 2014. Two reviewers independently searched the literature with differences settled through discussion. Data extracted included utility scores as determined in original research categorized according to disease severity as well as disutilities associated with exacerbations or comorbidities. Data were tabulated and analyzed descriptively. RESULTS: In total, 862 articles were identified, 790 were rejected, and 69 analyzed. There were 44 dealing with COPD and 25 with asthma. Average utilities determined by research were 0.828 ± 0.062, 0.765 ± 0.090, 0.711 ± 0.120, and 0.607 ± 0.120 for mild, moderate, severe, and very severe COPD, respectively. Utilities used in economic analyses were 0.866 ± 0.038, 0.770 ± 0.024, 0.739 ± 0.045, and 0.596 ± 0.075, respectively. Disutilities (annual) ranged from 0.002-0.378; major and minor exacerbations had respective disutilities of 0.287 and 0.108. For asthma patients, utilities were for 0.86 ± 0.32, 0.83 ± 0.065, and 0.74 ± 0.029, for mild, moderate, and severe disease, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Utilities have been summarized according to severity category of asthma and COPD. These values should be useful for researchers undertaking economic analyses of these diseases.

Pharmacoeconomics of depot antipsychotics for treating chronic schizophrenia in Sweden.

AIMS: To determine the cost-effectiveness of long-acting injectable (LAI) antipsychotics for chronic schizophrenia in Sweden. METHODS: A 1-year decision tree was developed for Sweden using published data and expert opinion. Five treatment strategies lasting 1 year were compared: paliperidone palmitate (PP-LAI), olanzapine pamoate (OLZ-LAI), risperidone (RIS-LAI), haloperidol decanoate (HAL-LAI) and olanzapine tablets (oral-OLZ). Patients intolerant/failing drugs switched to another depot; subsequent failures received clozapine. Resources and employment time lost (indirect costs) were costed in 2011 Swedish kroner (SEK), from standard government lists. The model calculated the average cost/patient and quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs), which were combined into incremental cost-effectiveness ratios. Multivariate and 1-way sensitivity analyses tested model stability. RESULTS: PP-LAI followed by OLZ-LAI had the lowest cost/patient (189,696 SEK) and highest QALYs (0.817), dominating in the base case. OLZ-LAI followed by PP-LAI cost 229,775 SEK (0.812 QALY), RIS-LAI followed by HAL-LAI cost 221,062 SEK (0.804 QALY), HAL-LAI followed by oral-OLZ cost 243,411 SEK (0.776 QALY), and oral-OLZ followed by HAL-LAI cost 249,422 SEK (0.773 QALY). The greatest proportions of costs (52.5-83.8%) were for institutional care; indirect costs were minor (2.4-3.8%). RESULTS were sensitive to adherence and hospitalization rates, but not drug cost. PP-LAI followed by OLZ-LAI dominated OLZ-LAI followed by PP-LAI in 59.4% of simulations, RIS-LAI followed by HAL-LAI in 65.8%, HAL-LAI followed by oral-OLZ in 94.0% and oral-OLZ followed by HAL-LAI in 95.9%; PP-LAI followed by OLZ-LAI was dominated in 1.1% of the 40,000 iterations. CONCLUSION: PP-LAI followed by OLZ-LAI was cost-effective in Sweden for chronic schizophrenia and cost-saving overall to the healthcare system.

Costos en pacientes con infección por Acinetobacter baumanniien Colombia / Healthcare costs in Colombian patients infected with Acinetobacter baumannii

Objetivo: Determinar el impacto económico como resultado de la adquisición de una infección por A. baumannii en Colombia. Métodos: Se consideró la información de un estudio previo de cohorte prospectivo, multicéntrico. Se incluyeron 165 pacientes ingresados en las Unidades de Cuidados Intensivos (UCIs) participantes entre abril de 2006 y abril de 2010. Se cuantificaron los costos directos e indirectos de la atención desde la perspectiva de la sociedad utilizando la técnica de microcosteo, y se realizaron modelos uni y multivariados. Resultados: La mayoría de los pacientes eran menores de 65 años de edad (75%), hombres (64%) y una tercera parte (32%) estaban infectados por un A. baumannii resistente (resistencia a 5 o más familias de antimicrobianos). El costo total hospitalario en la población de pacientes del estudio fue de US $ 10.180 (Costos directos US $ 10.105 SD ± 6.671 y costos indirectos US $ 75 ± 106 por paciente). El costo de los antimicrobianos fue de US $ 3.497 ± 3.510 por paciente. Conclusiones: Los pacientes con A. baumannii que fueron ingresados en la UCI son altamente costosos para el sistema de salud Colombiano. Aunque el costo principal estuvo asociado directamente a la atención en salud, cada paciente y su familia también asumieron costos, que se estimaron aproximadamente en 30% del salario mensual mínimo legal vigente para el año 2012.

Objective: The purpose of the study was to determine the healthcare costs among patients infected with A. baumannii in intensive care units (ICUs) in Colombia. Methods: We reviewed information from a previous prospective, observational, and multicenter study that included 165 patients admitted to Critical Care Units (ICUs) between April 2006 and April 2010. Direct and indirect health care costs were estimated from the societal perspective using micro-costing, and uni- and multivariate models were constructed. Results: The majority of patients (64%) were male; most (75%) were under 65 years of age, and 32% were infected with a pathogen resistant to 5 or more antimicrobial families. Overall, the healthcare cost in our sample was US $10,180 (The total direct cost (SD) was US $10,105±$6671 and the indirect cost was US $75±$106 per patient). The antimicrobia cost was US $3,497±$3,510 per patient and indirect costs represented <1% of the total cost. Conclusions: High costs were observed in patients with A. baumannii who were admitted to the ICU. The main cost was the direct cost of care, but patients and their families assumed out-of-pocket costs as a consequence of the infection that represented nearly 30% of the legal minimum wage for Colombia in 2012.

Validation of an economic model of paliperidone palmitate for chronic schizophrenia.

OBJECTIVE: Model validation is important, but seldom applied in chronic schizophrenia. Validation consists of verifying the model itself for face validity (i.e., structure and inputs), cross-validation with other models assessing the same issue, and comparison with real-life outcomes. The primary purpose was to cross-validate a recent pharmacoeconomic model comparing long-acting injectable (LAI) antipsychotics for treating chronic schizophrenia in Sweden. The secondary purpose was to provide external validation. METHODS: The model of interest was a decision tree analysis with a 1-year time horizon with costs in 2011 Swedish kroner. Drugs analyzed included paliperidone palmitate (PP-LAI), olanzapine pamoate (OLZ-LAI), risperidone (RIS-LAI), haloperidol (HAL-LAI), and oral olanzapine (oral-OLZ). Embase and Medline were searched from 1990-2012 for models examining LAIs. Articles were retrieved, with data extracted for all drugs compared including: expected costs, rates of hospitalization, proportion of time not in relapse, and associated QALYs. Outcomes from the model of interest were compared with those from other articles; costs were projected to 2012 using the consumer price index. RESULTS: Twenty-six studies were used for validation; 14 of them provided evidence for cross-validation, 13 for external validation, and four for cost. In cross-validation, cost estimates varied -1.8% (range: -12.4-20.1%), hospitalizations 5.2% (-12.1-3.1%), stable disease 2.5% (-5.6-1.5%), QALYs 9.0% (4.3% after removing outliers). All estimates of clinical outcomes were within 15%. In external validation, hospitalization rates varied by 6.3% (-0.7-11.3%). The research was limited by data availability and validity of the original results. CONCLUSION: Other models validated the outputs of our model very well.

Economic burden of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy in the USA.

BACKGROUND: Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy (NVP) is the most common medical condition during gestation, affecting 50%-90% of women during their first trimester, and many in the second and third trimester. NVP affects women's quality of life and exerts a large economic impact on patients, caregivers and society. OBJECTIVES: To estimate the overall economic burden of illness of NVP in the USA. METHODS: A spreadsheet model was utilized to estimate this burden including direct and indirect costs. Costs are reported in 2012 US dollars and were estimated from the perspective of society. Cost centers included drug treatments for mild to severe NVP and hospitalizations for hyperemesis gravidarum (HG), as well as time lost from work and caregiver time. Clinical, epidemiologic, and economic data were obtained from the literature to populate the model. Rates of drug use were multiplied by unit costs and summed. RESULTS: The estimated total economic burden in 2012 in the USA was $1,778,473,782 which included $1,062,847,276 (60%) in direct costs and $715,626,506 (40%) in indirect costs. Overall, the average cost to manage one woman for NVP was $1827. Costs increased with increasing severity of NVP. The estimates were conservative, as not all applicable costs could be included. CONCLUSIONS: NVP results in a significant economic impact, and hence effective therapy should be sought. Future prospective research should determine in more detail what resources are utilized in the USA to manage women with NVP.

Economic and clinical comparison of atypical depot antipsychotic drugs for treatment of chronic schizophrenia in the Czech Republic.

PURPOSE: The Czech Republic is faced with making choices between pharmaceutical products, including depot injectable antipsychotics. A pharmacoeconomic analysis was conducted to determine the cost-effectiveness of atypical depots. METHODS: An existing 1-year decision-analytic framework was adapted to model drug use in this healthcare system. The average direct costs to the General Insurance Company of the Czech Republic of using paliperidone palmitate (Xeplion®), risperidone (Risperdal Consta®), and olanzapine pamoate (Zypadhera®) were determined. Literature-derived clinical rates populated the model, with costs adjusted to 2012 Euros using the consumer price index. Outcomes included quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs), days in remission, and proportions hospitalized or visiting emergency rooms. One-way sensitivity analyses were calculated for all important inputs. A multivariate probability analysis was used to examine the stability of results using 10,000 iterations of simulated input over reasonable ranges of all included variables. RESULTS: Expected average costs/per patient treated were €5377 for PP-LAI, €6118 for RIS-LAI, and €6537 for OLZ-LAI. Respective QALYs were 0.817, 0.809, and 0.811; ER visits were 0.127, 0.134, and 0.141; hospitalizations were 0.252, 0.298, and 0.289. Results were generally robust in sensitivity analyses. PP-LAI dominated RIS-LAI and OLZ-LAI in 90.2% and 92.1% of simulations, respectively. Results were insensitive to drug prices but sensitive to adherence and hospitalization rates. CONCLUSIONS: PP-LAI dominated the other two drugs, as it had a lower overall cost and superior clinical outcomes, making it the preferred choice. Using PP-LAI in place of RIS-LAI for chronic relapsing schizophrenia would reduce the overall costs of care for the healthcare system.

Prevalence of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy in the USA: a meta analysis.

BACKGROUND: Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy (NVP) is the most common medical condition during gestation, carrying tremendous health burden, especially for the severe form, hyperemesis gravidarum (HG). The rates of NVP in the USA have not been systematically calculated. OBJECTIVES: To estimate the rates of NVP and HG in the USA. METHODS: A meta-analysis was conducted of all peer-reviewed articles from the USA that provided rates of NVP in early or late pregnancy or HG. Medline, Embase and Cochrane databases were searched from inception through November 2012; reviews and articles were hand searched. Rates were combined across studies using a random effects model. RESULTS: Forty-eight articles were identified; 15 were rejected and 33 were included for analysis. Twenty-three studies of 67,602 women provided rates of NVP which had a meta-analytic rate of 68.6% (CI95%:64.4%-72.8%). Three of them (N=5034) reported nausea without vomiting in 28.6% and two studies (N=136) produced a rate for NVP during late pregnancy of 24.0%. HG occurred in 1.2% of the 2.1 million women in 12 studies. CONCLUSIONS: We have summarized rates of NVP and HG, which are similar to those found in other parts of the world. Almost 70% of women suffer some form of the syndrome; 1.2% have the severe form, most of whom were hospitalized because of the HG. Future research should address issues of cost and resource utilization.